9 Chapter 9 Dimensions of Space: Personal and Environmental

City woman versus country boy. That was the root of one of the tensions between Davetta and Steven, stepmother and stepson. Blending families is hard enough, but it is decidedly complicated when there are two completely different worldviews. Davetta’s world consisted of Saturday afternoons outside manicuring her lawn, perfectly edging her curb and sidewalk, and sweeping the carport and sidewalk. Stevens were spent in the woods hunting, riding his bike, or at the creek fishing. Neither right, neither wrong, just different. One of the clashes these two encountered centered on space and territory. When Davetta married Steven’s father, Kenneth, they decided to stay in the house his children had always lived in. His 10-year-old daughter, Kelly, seemed to welcome the change, but 14-year-old Steven struggled. Davetta also found that there wasn’t much room for her things in the house, which made her feel like there wasn’t truly a space for her. In comparison, Steven felt like he was losing his space and that everything he had come to rely on was being upended, along with his broken family. Steven naturally struggled with a new woman in the space that once housed his first family. Yes, this was a disaster in the making.

Steven was a skilled hunter, even at his young age. It was hunting season and Steven had a successful day in the field. As he stood in Davetta’s flowerbed, cleaning his bounty on her porch, she asked himto take his operation to the backyard. He replied that is what he had always done, and he didn’t understand what the big deal was all about. He did, he took everything to their backyard. She looked out and saw him finishing his work on her patio table. Now, if you are from the city, you are probably thinking this was incredibly gross and unsanitary, like Davetta. If you are from the country, you are probably wondering why she made a big deal about it. These different perspectives on the use of space made Davetta realize that if they were going to be able to blend well, they needed a new space to grow as a distinct family, making unique memories together. They moved to a new house and although it took many years, Davetta and Steven are very close now. If you find yourself struggling with someone over space and territory, don’t give up, you can find a way to work it out, even if both of you are very territorial.

There are various ways to look at the influence of space on communication. Personal space, known as proxemics, refers to interpersonal distance. Territoriality is the space that we claim as our own and feel like we have a right to defend. The environment is a literal space that consists of lighting, color, aesthetics, that affects the type of communication in it.  This chapter addresses all three types of space: personal, territory, and environment.

Proxemics

Have you ever felt the presence of someone approaching you from behind, even if you didn’t hear or see them? That is because we have a bubble that surrounds us, our personal bubble. It is the space in front of us, above us, on each side of us, and behind us. Proxemics is the study of this informal and personal space, developed by Edward T. Hall in 1966. Hall was a cultural anthropologist who wrote proxemics theory after spending time in the army overseas observing miscommunication between cultures (see Brown, 2001). His pioneering work on proxemics classified four primary zones of interpersonal space in Western culture: intimate distance, personal distance, social distance, and public distance.

Intimate distance is 0-18 inches and is reserved for those in close relationships such as romantic partners, close family members, or very close friends. At this range, communication often involves whispers, touch, and strong emotional exchange.

Personal distance is 1.5 – 4 feet. This is approximately one arm’s length away and allows for personal interaction without encroaching on intimacy.

Social distance is 4 – 12 feet. This is approximately two arm’s lengths away and is common in professional interactions with colleagues, clients, or strangers.

Public distance is the largest at 12+ feet. This is used in formal presentations and in public speaking. It is difficult to communicate at this distance and discourages two-way interaction.

Our interaction distance with others depends on many factors, most noteworthy, culture. Some cultures stand very close to each other when speaking, whereas others are uncomfortable with the closeness. It is important to note that barrier behaviors (e.g. positioning an object between the speaker or steps away) may indicate that a person’s personal space has been violated and they are uncomfortable. In contrast, Goncalves et al. (2024) recommend training nurses on their proxemic behaviors when welcoming patients, especially during transfusions.

Territory

Territory is a space that we claim and control in our environment. Individuals vary in their territoriality. Some have clearly set boundaries, whereas other’s boundaries are more permeable. Knapp et al. (2013) explain that there are three types of territories. The first is primary. These are spaces that are private or are ours exclusively: we have control over these areas and they are often private. For example, our bedroom, car, and perhaps office. Secondary spaces are those areas that don’t belong to us, but we believe others should not occupy them once we’ve claimed them. For example, your seat in class or a parking spot at your place of work. Last are public spaces. Public spaces can be occupied by anyone and we know that we don’t have any rights to claim the space. For example, a seat on a subway or train or a parking spot at a store. There are three basic reactions to territorialism: violation, invasion, or contamination.  Violation is the “unwarranted use of another’s territory…staring at a stranger…taking up two subway seats” (p. 138). Invasion is taking over another person’s territory, such as house guests filling their host’s refrigerator with their specialty food items. Last, contamination is the act of defiling territory. It is leaving behind items or trash. For example, someone leaving an empty water bottle in your car when they exit. Again, individual reactions to each of these depends on the personality of the individual and their degree of territoriality, concurrent with their relationship with the individual. I tend to be very territorial over my kitchen. I love to cook and want to be in charge of what happens in that space. However, if when I don’t feel threatened that someone is trying to push me out and take it over, I am more than willing to let them use it freely without feeling any angst.

Density and Crowding

Another important factor to understand is the difference between density and crowding and the effects of each on behavior. Density is the amount of people in an area; crowding is the psychological reaction to density. Some individuals are accustomed to density in certain areas and are not bothered, as in a crowded subway or at a graduation ceremony. Some individuals may have acclimated to the density and feel fine being shoulder to shoulder with strangers. However, those same individuals may react quite differently in a doctor’s waiting room that is as crowded as the subway. On the other hand, some individuals may feel very uncomfortable even on densely populated subways. Context and personality is key.

In 1972 John B. Calhoun studied rat behavior in an overcrowded space. He called his experiment the behavioral sink. His study included Norway rats that had access to unlimited food, water, and shelter, but limited space. Over time and with increased crowding, he recorded collapses in social structures and an increase in atypical, unsociable behaviors. In human behavior, Baum and Greenburg (1975) discovered that dense populations decrease physical attraction and helpful social behaviors. Density does not always increase stress, but when it does, individuals employ various coping mechanisms. Many individuals will use their phone as a scapegoat, whereas others may shorten their interactions with others. Additionally, aggression and psychological distress is associated with densely populated areas (e.g. residential and prisons) (see for example Weber et al., 2024). Other environmental factors can affect communication, which is discussed in the next section.

The Environment

Nonverbal communication in an environment is not just affected by the amount of people in the space; it is also impacted by the items, lighting, sound, and colors in the space. Maslow and Mintz (1956) studied the way that a room’s aesthetics would influence perceptions. They found that when people were in an “ugly” room, they rated individuals as less attractive and negativity was increased. However, when participants made the same evaluations in a “beautiful” room they had more positive reactions. Wilmot (1990) found different results when he replicated this study. What we do know, however, is that our surroundings will have an impact on the way that we feel and our emotional well-being and we regulate our communication depending on the space.

Items

Items in the environment create a specific climate and can enhance or inhibit communication in the space. Classrooms are often set up very differently. Have you ever had a class that you barely spoke to anyone or knew anyone’s name at the end of the semester? In comparison, have you ever taken a class where you knew everyone and their names by midterm? It could be because of the configuration of the room. Classrooms with desks straightforward, side by side, facing the front of the room discourage communication with other classmates, but encourage undivided attention with the instructor. Desks arranged in clusters of four or more encourage communication between seatmates. Communication can be regulated by seating at a table during meetings or interactions. Many newlyweds spend a good amount of time deciding on seating arrangements for their guests at their reception. Likewise, couples with greater commitment and closer relationships have more jointly acquired items displayed.

Other ways communication is affected is where someone sits and the layout, not just with whom they sit. Placing individuals directly across from one another encourages competition. Cooperation can be encouraged by sitting next to one another or diagonally. Life tip, if there is someone who tends to talk too much during meetings sit that person next to the leader. The reduced cues (e.g. eye contact) can reduce their conversational input. Many offices are very limited in the ways they can be arranged. However, when given a choice, desks oriented with the professor behind and the student sitting across tends to keep the conversational more professional and less personal; the desk acts as a barrier between the two. Professor desks with a student chair on the side encourages collaboration and interaction between student and professor, both personally and professionally.

Sommer (1977) studied the impact of classroom design on students. He states that a teacher’s educational philosophy and educational goals is reflected in the layout of the classroom, when there are moveable desks (some obviously cannot be changed). He goes on to state that the physical environment is an important consideration for learning and should not be dismissed. In previous research (Sommer, 1965), he found that students who dislike their learning environment will avoid it, larger classes decrease participation, and that students strategically choose their seat according to their interest in participation. Those who choose seats in the back, outside of the professor’s field of vision prefer less interaction. Although, those who sit in the front row tend to have higher grades.

Seating is not the only item in a space that affects communication. Artifacts, such as furniture, paintings, and decorations communicate formality, warmth, an invitation to communicate (or not) and personality. If I were to tell you a room was decorated boho – what images does that conjure? Natural elements, eclectic style, mixed colors and fabrics, handmade crafts? In contrast, what images does traditional design conjure? Deep wood and fabric colors, ornate details, classic and elegant furnishings? Each of these styles affects the climate and communication in the space. Bohemian styles communicate a care-free environment. Traditional spaces are more formal and can have a cooling effect on communication. Imagine communication with your professor in each of those environments, how would your communication change?

Likewise, individuality is also expressed through the decorations used in a space. Many professors’ office have a full bookcase, indicating a dedication to the pursuit of knowledge. Some are sparsely decorated. My office is decorated with a home vibe, lamps, personal items, old books, and a 5,000-piece puzzle. However, I had a friend whose office barely had decorations – she wanted a distinction between her home and work. Researchers have found that college freshmen who still wear or display their high school regalia may be having a difficult time transitioning to college and that it should be an indication to assess their well-being.

Lighting

Lighting plays a significant role in nonverbal communication and structures perceptions of an environment by influencing the way messages are perceived and interpreted. The brightness, color, and direction of lighting can affect mood, convey emotion, and highlight or obscure facial expressions and body language. For example, soft, warm lighting can create a welcoming and intimate atmosphere, encouraging openness and trust, while harsh or dim lighting may increase discomfort, tension, or seriousness. Soft lighting is especially effective in homes, cafes, or therapy settings. Colino (2023) explains that the right kind of lighting is essential to human well-being and has a significant effect on our psychological state and behavior. Natural light helps regulate our circadian rhythm and natural light in kitchens and other rooms in our home improved emotional well-being and our ability to get along with others. For spaces that are lit artificially, strategically choosing the temperature of light can encourage certain behaviors. For example, cool lights are energizing, and promotes concentration and focused work. Warm lights, on the other hand, foster creative thinking and relaxation.

Soft lighting encourages self-disclosure in certain environments and counselors who use soft lighting have higher ratings. However, in some cases soft lighting can increase anxiety. Imagine a doctor giving a physical examination in a dimly lit room. Additionally, researchers have found that leftward lighting is actually more persuasive in advertising.

Seasonal affect disorder (SAD) is a type of depression that occurs at certain times of the year, most commonly during fall and winter months when the daylight hours are shorter. In Alaska, the effects of SAD can be particularly intense because of the extreme lack of sunlight during the winter solstice, when some regions only experience a few hours of dim daylight or complete darkness for several weeks. The reduction in natural light has been shown to increase fatigue, decrease mood, irritability, and sleep disturbances. As a result, light therapy is a common practice in these areas. Light therapy lamps have been shown to be effective (after talking to a healthcare provider) for those who experience SAD (Mayo Clinic, 2022).

Sound

What songs are on your playlist? This Queen song was identified as one of the top ten happiest songs ever by neuroscientist Jolij (Stillman, 2020). It is clear that music influences our moods, and our moods influence our choice of music. Background music in businesses improves work performance, reduces tension, reduces absenteeism, and increases consumer spending. Researchers discovered that patrons spent more money in restaurants that played classical music, compared to pop or no music. Most interesting, though, is the impact of sound and product choice. North et al. (1997) tested French and German wine sales compared to French and German background music in a grocery store. The wines were similar in price and sweetness. They found that when German music was played German wines outsold the French wines. Likewise, when French music was played, French wine outsold the German wines. In a more recent study, North (2012) tested the type of music played (powerful and heavy, subtle and refined, zingy and refreshing, or mellow and soft) and perceptions of the taste of a wine. He had participants taste either a red or white wine, in a room with one of the types of music listed or no music at all (his control condition) and then rate the taste of wine on a 0-10 scale as powerful and heavy, subtle and refined, zingy and refreshing, or mellow and soft. “If the background music was powerful and heavy then the wine was perceived as more powerful and heavy than when no background music was played” (p. 7). The same results were consistent against all conditions and there was no difference between male and female, although the white wine had a greater frequency of consistency between music and perception of taste.

Colors

Color psychology is the study of emotions and psychological associations between colors and emotions. The London Image Institute (2020) explains that colors evoke specific perceptions, some subjective and some actually impacting the brain. They identify the following symbolic characteristics:

• Red: excitement, strength, love, and energy
• Orange: confidence, success, bravery, and sociability
• Yellow: creativity, happiness, warmth, and cheer
• Green: nature, healing, freshness, and quality
• Blue: trust, peace, loyalty, and competence
• Pink: compassion, sincerity, sophistication, and sweet
• Purple: royalty, luxury, spirituality, and ambition
• Brown: dependable, rugged, trustworthy, and simple
• Black: formality, dramatic, sophistication, and security
• White: clean, simplicity, innocence, and honest

Colorology, also known as chromotherapy, is a field that explores the effects of color on human beings, often in a therapeutic context. In this treatment, individuals are exposed to objects of certain colors or specific-colored lights. Emani et al. (2020) found that intensive care unit nurses often suffered from compassion fatigue because of their repeated exposure to critical illnesses. When chromotherapy based interventions were used with ICU nurses, they found that colorology may actually improve these nurses quality of life and serve to combat secondary post-traumatic stress. Cherry (2024) explains that in colorology

• Red is used to stimulate the body and mind and to increase circulation
• Yellow is thought to stimulate the nerves and purify the body
• Orange is used to heal the lungs and to increase energy levels
• Blue is believed to soothe illnesses and treat pain
• Indigo shades are thought to alleviate skin problems

This is incredibly interesting, but it is important to keep in mind that the influence of color on perceptions can be culturally influenced, subjective, and personal.

Summary

There are two ways to look at space: personal (proxemics) or environmental. Edward T. Hall conducted early research on conversational distances and determined that there are similarities within cultures and differences between cultures on comfortable conversational distances. The key is to understand the culture you are communicating in and to watch for behavioral cues that indicate discomfort.

Territory and territoriality are another important factor in space. There are three basic territories: primary, secondary, and public. Primary are private, secondary spaces are semi-private, and public spaces are available to everyone. When someone is territorial, they have an intense desire to be in charge of and control the space they feel is exclusively theirs. There are different types of encroachment in territories and increased violations increase stress level. Although it is important to recognize that individuals have varying degrees of territoriality, with some setting clear boundaries and others having more permeable boundaries.

Last, element in an environment can have a great impact on the communication that happens and is expected to happen there. Communication in a particular environment is affected by the items and their arrangement (e.g. furniture and decorations), the lighting (e.g. natural, warm, or bright), background noise, and colors. These elements can create an atmosphere that encourages discussion and openness or energy and focus and affect our emotional and mental well-being.

References

Baum, A., & Greenberg, C. I. (1975). Waiting for a crowd: The behavioral and perceptual effects of anticipated crowding. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32(4), 671            679. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.32.4.671

Brown, N. (2001). Edward T. Hall. Proxemic Theory, 1966. UC Santa Barbara, CSISS Classics.

Cherry, K. (2024). Color Psychology: Does It Affect How You Feel? VeryWellMind.  https://www.verywellmind.com/color-psychology-2795824

Colino, S. (2023). The lighting in your home could be affecting your mood. The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/home/2023/04/11/lighting-mental-health-well       being/

de Azevedo Gonçalves, F. G., de Araújo, S. T. C., de Azevedo, A. L., Ferreira, P. B. P., Torres, D. G., Júnior, E. F. P., Bastos, S. do S. F., & Silva, S. F. (2024). Nursing Technicians’  Proxemic Behaviors during Transfusions in Hospitalized Clients. Texto & Contexto        Enfermagem, 33, 1–13. https://doi-org.ezproxy.una.edu/10.1590/1980-265X-TCE-20230207en

Emani, R., Ghavami, H., Radfar, M., & Khalkhali, H.R. (2020). Impact of chromotherapy on professional quality of life in intensive care unit nurses: a randomized controlled trial. Fatigue: Biomedicine, Health & Behavior, 8, 3. https://doi.org/10.1080/21641846.2020.1782058

London Image Institute (2020). Color Psychology: How Do Colors Affect Mood & Emotions?  https://londonimageinstitute.com/how-to-empower-yourself-with-color-psychology/

Knapp, M., Hall, J. & Horgan, T. (2013). Nonverbal Communication in Human Interaction, 8thned. Wadsworth, CA.

Mayo Clinic (2022). Seasonal affective disorder treatment: Choosing a light box. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/seasonal-affective-disorder/indepth/seasonal-affective-disorder-treatment/art-20048298

North, A.C., Hargreaves, D. J., & McKendrick, J. (1997). In-store music affects product choice. Nature, 390, 132. https://doi.org/10.1038/36484

North, A. C. (2012). The effect of background music on the taste of wine. British Journal of Psychology, 103. 3. doi: 10.1111/j.2044-8295.2011.02072.x

Sommer, R. (1965) Effects of classroom environment on student learning. Eric Clearinghouse. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED010252

Sommer, R. (1977). Classroom Layout. Theory Into Practice.

Stillman, J. (2020). Neuroscience Says These Are the 10 Happiest Songs Ever. Inc.  https://www.inc.com/jessica-stillman/music-happiness-neuroscience.html

Weber, C., Gatersleben, B. Jagannath, S. Fuchslin, B. and Costa Delabrida, Z.N. (2024). Crowding and aggression during the COVID-19 lockdown in the United Kingdom: The    relationship between residential density, subjective crowding, privacy, and aggression. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2024.102335

Wilmot, D. (1990). Maslow and Mintz revisited. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 10, 4.  https://doi.org/10.1016/S0272-4944(05)80030-1

Yılar, S., Deniz, B., Baltacı, I., Cogen, T., Deniz, R., Telci, F., Demirel, E., Altun, K., Kural, H.,   & Emül, M. (2023). Interpersonal distance preferences: an unexplored consequence of hearing loss. Egyptian Journal of Otolaryngology, 39(1), 1–9. https://doiorg.ezproxy.una.edu/10.1186/s43163