4 Chapter 4: Kinesics – Gestures

Mark and Chloe were given emergency custody of a baby, whom they eventually adopted. Her name is Meredith. They knew that Meredith desperately needed to know and feel that she was in a safe environment, so they took painstaking efforts to introduce stability and security into her young life and daily routine. Meredith’s developmental progress was delayed when she came to them; they knew she depended on them being very attentive to all attempts to communicate her needs. They decided that when Meredith communicated through crying, or any means, they would respond immediately. They wanted her to know that her communication would be met with a loving and quick response, but they needed to better understand what she was trying to communicate. Chloe began teaching Meredith sign language when she was a little over 10-months old. Meredith learned to sign a couple of words, such as thirsty and hungry, which was very exciting. However, Meredith was an early talker and stopped signing once she began communicating with spoken words. Chloe eventually gave up trying to teach her more sign language for several reasons – and instead tried to learn how to interpret 12-month-old babble. That was an entirely new challenge.

It amazes me that infants can learn how to sign as early as nine-months old (and some even younger). In this chapter we will discuss another area of kinesics, gestures. We’ll discuss the development of gestures, different types of gestures, and cultural/ co-cultural dynamics of gestures.

Development of Gestures

As we can see from Chloe and Meredith’s story, sign language can be learned at a very early age. Rebelo (2022) has seen infants as young as five-months old use sign language to communicate. He adds that infants who learn sign language will often overlap the gesture with the spoken word, but some will drop signing abruptly as they learn to speak, which is what seemed to happen with Meredith. Researchers have found that infant signing skills don’t interfere with language development and that it actually improves their language and vocabulary. However, signing and gestures are categorized differently. Signing has a formal set of rules, whereas gestures have a clear set of codes, but they are learned through observation and are not taught methodically, as in sign language. Gestures are continuously learned and used throughout childhood and adulthood, often in accompaniment with the spoken word, with clearly defined meaning within a culture, and yet not written anywhere. The use of gestures by infants have been shown to provide a critical snapshot of a child’s communication development (First Words Project, 2019). Infants are taught to use gestures, but gestures do not have the formality associated with sign language.

There are different ages that children tend to develop gesture and language (children can vary tremendously in their development, this is based on generalizations). Lowry (2015) explains that around 8 or 9 months of age children begin using various types of gestures to communicate their needs and wants. It is important to note that the amount of gestures a child learns depends on the culture they are raised in, some cultures gesture more than others. Children learn to gesture before they learn to speak. Table 1 outlines the relationship between gestures and language, the approximate age the gesture is learned, and a brief explanation.

Table 1: Age occurrence of gesture and language in infants

Benefits of Gestures

Gestures have many benefits for the encoder and decoder, as well as positive effects for both children and adults.

Decoding

Gestures have been shown to improve learning and comprehension in conversations.  Numerous studies have demonstrated the benefit that using gesture during instruction has on learning. For example, Kang et al. (2013) found that when gestures were used to explain mitosis, participants who were explained the process with the use of representational gestures comprehended the information better than those who saw no gesture or beat gestures during the explanation. Gestures used during everyday conversation improve understanding and semantic meaning between interactants (see for example Beattie & Shovelton 2002). These scholars studied adult learning and conversation. However, the age of the decoder doesn’t matter. Aussems (2019) found that three-year old children recalled events and actors better when iconic gestures were used during performances.

Encoding

Gestures also improve the encoding process. Cook et al. (2010) studied the effect of gestures on an encoder. They had participants watch a video and then restate what they saw in the video. Some of the participants were allowed to use their hands as they retold the content from the video, while the others were restrained from using their hands. They found that those who were able to use their hands were able to remember and recall more information from the video. They conducted another study using pictures instead of videos. The participants were instructed to use gestures or to refrain from using gestures as they explained what they saw in the picture, as in their first study. The results were the same, those who were allowed to use gestures recalled more information than the other group. However, when they compared the results of those who saw the short videos to those who saw the picture, the participants who saw the photograph recalled more details. This indicated that those who generated their own gestures had greater recall than those who observed others using gestures, even when they were allowed to use them as well. The researchers didn’t stop there. They called the participants back two weeks later and tested their recall. The participants who were allowed to gesture again excelled at the task. This tells us that not only does the use of gesture help working memory, gestures also aid our memory over time. Cook and Fenn (2017) later add that gesture improves the quality of the memory that is retained.

Classification of Gestures

Paul Ekman is a leading expert and scholar in nonverbal communication and emotion, gestures, facial expressions, and body language. His work spans over 40 years. He developed a classification system of five kinds of gestures, three of which we will discuss in more detail – illustrators, emblems, and manipulators.

Emblems

Emblems are speech independent gestures. In other words, they have a precise meaning of their own that doesn’t rely on the spoken word for understanding, see figures 2 and 3. Sometimes emblems are associated with words (e.g. cupping hand over ear and asking “what did you say?”) but they have a meaning on their own and do not rely on the spoken word. Emblems and sign language are similar because they are verbal, left-hemisphere communication codes (Andersen, 2008).

Emblems are frequently used when there is too much noise to be heard, when people are too far apart to hear each other (Ekman, 2012), when it is important to remain quiet, etc. Gestures are socially learned and each culture has specific meanings. The gesture itself may be the same among culture, but the meaning different, or, a word may have the same meaning in different cultures, but there are different emblems.

They are typically used intentionally, but slips may reveal emotions that someone is trying to hide. For example, if you are speaking to someone who would likely be upset with your conversation and they scratch their nose with their middle finger, they may be leaking their displeasure unintentionally. These are called emblematic slips and are quite reliable in deception detection.

Illustrators

Illustrators are speech related gestures. In other words, they rely on the spoken word to understand their meaning or they illustrate speech, see figure 4. Ekman (2012) explains that they are socially learned. The increased use of illustrators by a speaker indicates positive involvement with the topic, whereas the decreased use of illustrators can indicate boredom or fatigue. Illustrators also decrease when someone is lying or nervous (Ekman, 2023). Illustrators can indicate improved mental health. A comparison of individuals when depressed versus improved mood found that the individual’s use of illustrators actually increased once they had recovered (see Ekman and Friesen, 1974). Ekman (2012) identifies six types of illustrators:

• Batons – beat a tempo; they accent or emphasize a phrase or word
• Ideographs – trace a path or direction of thought
• Deictic movements – point to an object or referent
• Kinetographs – depict a body action
• Spatial movements – depict a spatial relationship
• Pictographs – draw a picture of their referent
• Rhythmic movements – depict the pace of an event or its rhythm

Even though illustrators don’t have precise meaning in place of language, they may infer a person’s perspective towards one’s own message. We can often determine a speaker’s disposition by looking at the orientation of their palms. There are many different meanings that can be gleaned from palm position, but here are few.

• Palms up indicates an openness, as in open to ideas, and is often interpreted as a friendly gesture.
• Palms down can indicate an unwillingness to listen to ideas other than the one that the gesturer is speaking.
• Palms facing the referent indicates “stop” or “hold on.”
• Palms that face each other and are positioned as if holding a ball in front of one’s chest indicate an idea or concept that the speaker has that they want to (or are) sharing.
• Palms that are displayed on the side of an individual are open and indicate an openness to communicate as well.
• Palms that motion in a singular circular motion that moves from palms down to palms up indicates giving – “here it is” or as if giving the speaking turn over to the listener “your turn.”
• Palms that repeatedly motion in circles indicate attempt to come up with an idea or thought.
• Palms facing speaker indicate embracing a concept

See Table 2 for more examples (Knapp et al., 2014; image citations in references)

Table 2: Palm orientation and its meaning in relation to concept and gesturer

Palm orientation	Context	Potential meaning	Example
Palms up	Relationship to referent instead of what is being talked about	More uncertainty “I think” or “I’m not sure”
	Relationship to referent	Pleading or “Give me”
	Punctuation gesture	“Here’s my point”
	Interactive gesture	“Go ahead…it’s your turn” or an invitation “come with me”
Palms down	Relationship to referent	Certainty “Clearly” or “Absolutely”
Palms facing	Relationship to referent	“Stop” or “I can’t…”

Manipulators

Ekman and Friesen (1976) identified movement that they originally called adapters, but years later, Ekman (2012) changed the term to manipulators to more adequately describe the behavior. Manipulators are when one part of the body or face manipulates another part of the body or face (e.g. stroking the side of the face, wrapping hair around a finger…). Manipulators are contagious, when we see them happening, we tend to mimic them. Early research on manipulators (adapters) identified two types – self-oriented and other-oriented. Self-oriented manipulator is the type explained above. An object-oriented manipulator uses an object instead of body part (e.g. clicking a pen). Manipulators can be an outlet for nervous energy, but the excessive use of manipulators is often interpreted as anxiety. Because they are often associated with lying (although that is not necessarily true), excessive use can cause the speaker to lose credibility.

Cultural and Co-cultural Gestures

Cultures differ in their use of gestures for listening as well as speaking. Gregersen et al. (2009) studied participants taking college Spanish classes. They tested the use of gestures for beginner, intermediate, and advanced learners when they spoke in Spanish or their native language, English. They found that advanced learners used more illustrators than beginning and intermediate students. Additionally, they found that participants, overall, used more gestures when speaking in their native language. Gestures are not universal. There may be common gestures, but their meaning is not consistent throughout the world. There are also many ideas or feelings that countries have developed gestures for, but those gestures also vary throughout cultures. There are even some countries that have gestures that are specific only to that culture.

There are some common gestures among countries, although they often have different meanings (see Table 3).

Table 3: Common gestures and their meanings in countries

Gesture	Country	Meaning
	America	Previous meaning “okay” – in 2010 listed as a symbol of hate as white supremacists claimed the gesture
	Brazil and Turkey	Gay
	France and Belgium	Referent is a zero
	South India	Referent is a butthole
	Iraq	Obscene gesture “the bird”
	Japan	Money or coins
	America and Korea	Hitchhiking or Good/ good job
	Latin America, Greece, and southern Italy	Opposite meaning – not good
	Nigeria	Pumped up and down is rude
	Australia	Pumped up and down is obscene
Table 3: continued Common Gestures and Their Meanings
	America	Victory or peace
	England	Palm facing inward is obscene
	Japan and Korea	Used when taking a picture
“The Bird” Middle finger	America	Obscene gesture. A new equivalent has emerged in the younger generation – the pinky finger raised toward someone now has the same meaning.
	Uruguay	Don’t believe
	China	Used to point – no ill will intended

Countries also have gestures for common ideas, thoughts, or feelings. However, the gesture may be different (see Table 4).

Table 4: Gestures created for specific ideas, thoughts, or feelings

Co-cultural Gestures

One way that groups within a culture create their own ‘language’ and distinguish themselves from outsiders is through gestures. Various different groups in America use gestures to communicate information in their group that is known only to the group. The last time that you watched any type of sports, you probably noticed specific gestures the coach gave to his/her players. Chikha and colleagues (2022) investigated the effectiveness of a coach’s gestures with player performance. They found that for novice players, their coaches’ gestures improved their performance. However, this was only for novice players. When a player had more expertise, the positive effects were not present. Additionally, if you belong to a Greek organization, chances are you have likely heard “throw what you know” and perhaps even have a specific sign. This tradition began in the 70s and originated with the National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC), made up of nine historically Black fraternities and sororities. They are also known as the Divine Nine. The intention of development of the NPHC was to prevent the discrimination of membership in fraternities and sororities based on race or religion. Hand signs in the National Panhellenic Council sororities didn’t come into popular use until 2006 (Guymon, 2006).  Members of Kappa Alpha Theta have rethought their use of their hand signs and have urged their members to cease the practice (Rethinking the Practice of Hand Signs, 2021).

Conclusion

We learn and begin to use gestures as infants. Researchers have found that the use of gestures not only helps the person encoding the gesture to retain more information, they also assist in comprehension for the decoder. Gestures can have a unique meaning of their own, as in emblems, or they may be associated with speech, as in illustrators, to enhance clarity and understanding. Even when an illustrator doesn’t have an alternate word for its meaning, it may still communicate our position, perspectives, or feelings toward a person, interaction, or topic. Last, there are not universal gestures in the world with the same meaning. Common gestures have the same form, but vary throughout cultures. Some ideas, thoughts, or feelings are common, but have different gestures among countries. Last, some gestures have meaning only in the country they are used. Like language, new gestures are constantly being generated.

References

30 Gestures That Don’t Mean What You Think in Other Countries, (2020). Alot Travel Team.  https://travel.alot.com/destinations/15-laziest-states-in-the-country   16801?s=61&isLong=0&isVertical=1

Andersen, P.A. Nonverbal Communication: Forms and Functions, 2nd ed. Waveland Press, Inc.

Chikha, H. Ben, Zoudji, B., & Khacharem, A. (2022). Coaches’ pointing gestures as means to convey tactical information in basketball: an eye-tracking study. International Journal of   Sport and Exercise Psychology, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/1612197X.2022.2138498

Cook, S. W., Yip, T. K., & Goldin-Meadow, S. (2010). Gesturing makes memories that last. Journal of Memory and Language, 63(4), 465–475. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2010.07.002

First Words Project, Florida State University (2019). Baby and Toddler Milestones: 16 Gestures  by 16 Months. Reading Rockets. https://www.readingrockets.org/article/baby-and            toddler-milestones-16-gestures-16months#:~:text=At%2013%20months%2C%20children%20begin,watching%20others%0and%20imitating%20them.

Guymon, S. (2022, January 13). Racism remains persistent in Greek Life. Old Gold & Black.  https://wfuogb.com/14644/opinion/racism-remains-persistent-in-greek-life/

Helm, K. (2021, October 6). Rethinking the Practice of Hand Signs. Kappa Alpha Theta. https://www.kappaalphatheta.org/blog/fraternity/rethinking-the-practice-of-hand-signs

Ekman, P. (2023). Types of Gestures. Paul Ekman Group.   https://www.paulekman.com/nonverbal-communication/types-of-gestures/

Ekman, P. (2012). Emotional and conversational nonverbal signals. Gesture, Speech, and Sign, 45–55. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198524519.003.0003

Gregersen, T., Olivares-Cuhat, G., & Storm, J. (2009). An examination of L1 and L2 gesture use: What role does proficiency play? Modern Language Journal, 93(2), 195–208.      https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.2009.00856.x

Koenig, R. (2022, November 28). Baby sign language basics: How to teach and when to start. Today. https://www.today.com/parents/baby-sign-language-basics-when-start-how-teach   it-t156990

Özc¸alişkan, Ş., Gentner, D., & Goldin-Meadow, S. (2012). Do iconic gestures pave the way for children’s early verbs? Applied Psycholinguistics, 35(6), 1143–1162.  https://doi.org/10.1017/S0142716412000720

Table Images (in order of image occurrence)

Katsiantonis, N. (2017). 4 Ways to Use Body Language to Be Perceived as Friendly & Influential. https://blog.100mentors.com/presentation-must-knows-4-ways-to-use-body            language-to-be-perceived-as-a-friendly-and-influential-speaker/

Getty Images. (2023). Palm up – It’s Your Turn.

Nonverbal Body Language Dictionary (2014). Body Language Project. http://bodylanguageproject.com/nonverbal-dictionary/body-language-of-palm-up   displays-or-the-rogatory-posture/

Getty Images (2023). Come with Me.

Verch, Marco (2021). Stay Away – Women showing STOP gesture with hand.  https://www.flickr.com/photos/30478819@N08/51596595782