8 Chapter 8: Haptics

Samantha was a petite, young professor who taught an introductory speech class. One semester she had several football players in her class. As you can imagine, her small stature seemed even smaller beside the large-bodied men. On the day of the final exam one student, Charles, finished his exam, but then returned and stood outside the door waiting and peering through the glass. Samantha stepped out to make sure everything was okay, and Charles proceeded to tell her “I just wanted to let you know that I really enjoyed your class.” Samantha was so touched that without thinking, she wrapped her arms around him and hugged him tight. Charles went completely stiff. Eyes wide open, arms dropped to the side stiff. She immediately questioned her decision to hug him, as I am sure he questioned his decision to declare his enjoyment of the class. He politely half-smiled and left, she returned to the room concerned and worried for some time. You will be glad to know that she did see him in town a few weeks later and he actually prompted a hug between them.

Some individuals are touch avoiders, they don’t touch others, and they don’t want to be touched by others. Some individuals are touch approachers; they enjoy touching others and enjoy receiving touch in return. Touch is one of the most significant, life-changing, forms of nonverbal communication and yet it is often the most underused. In this chapter we will discuss various types of touch, the messages that are communicated through touch, the impact of touch in varying contexts, and cultural/ co-cultural use of touch. In case you are wondering, Samantha and Chris saw each other in a store a few weeks later, and to her relief and pleasure, he initiated a hug with her.

Haptics is the study of touch. It is defined by the APA Dictionary of Psychology (2023) as “the study of touch, particularly as a means of actively exploring and gaining information about the environment, and the applications of this study in communication systems.” Touch communicates many messages and is unlike any other form of nonverbal communication Touching is a sign of intimacy and immediacy with another person. The pandemic negatively impacted many areas of nonverbal communication, but the decline in touch possibly had the most deleterious impact on us all as we ceased hugging and greeting with handshakes while it was raging – a time when we needed touch the most. Prior to the pandemic researchers claimed that a 20-second hug could relieve stress and pain, strengthen our immune system, make us happier, and deepen our relationships (Williams, 2018). These long-lasting hugs increased serotonin production and helped release oxytocin. More recent studies have shown that even five-ten second hugs can produce positive effects, whereas short hugs should be avoided.

Types of Touch

There are several types and functions of touch. To begin, there are two basic touches: active and passive. O’Dell and Hovert (2002) explain that active touch is the one that is initiated, or the act of touching. Passive touch occurs when stimulation is imposed on the skin, or rather when a touch is received. Positive and negative perceptions of touch have much to do with the social context they are given in as well as the person initiating the touch.

• Functional or professional touch. This is the least intimate form of touch and is the type of touch exchanged between a nurse and patient, physician and patient, hair stylist and client, physical therapist and client, coaches and athletes, etc.
• Social-polite touch. This touch occurs between initial acquaintances, in business relationships, an in more formal occasions. An example of this type of touch include handshaking, which conveys recognition and equality (Andersen, 2008).
• Friendship-warmth touch. This is not only the most important touch, it is also the most ambiguous (Andersen, 2008). The intensity and duration is negotiated between partners. Imagine hugging your college roommate. Too much and too long can be confusing, however, too little communicates coldness and distance.
• Love-intimacy touch. These touches are only exchanged by a few people. These are touches between very good friends, close family members, lovers, and spouses. They are unique to each person and can be anything from holding hands to touching someone’s cheek.
• Sexually arousing touch. This type of touch is the most personal and intimate of all touches. It is also the most stimulating or the most anxiety evoking of all touches.

Another type of touch is self-touch. The different types of self-touch include: shielding, cleaning, special signals, and self-intimacies. Shielding is done to either reduce input or output. I hate horror movies, but that doesn’t mean I have seen many. I often find myself turning my head and covering my eyes – reducing input. Or perhaps when we don’t want to hear something we cover our ears. We reduce output by covering our mouth. We also touch ourselves to clean. Hygiene is one of the ways that we use cleaning actions, but we also will use preen during times of stress. For example, many individuals may clean out from under their fingernails or scratch their heads in times of stress. Research confirms that women tend to engage in cleaning actions more frequently than men. We also use special signals such as cupping the ear to indicate that we can’t hear. Last are self-intimacies. These include comforting actions that take the place of a partner administering the touch. For example, we may hug ourselves by crossing our arms in times when a hug from another individual would be beneficial. They also include behaviors such as holding one’s own hands, crossing legs, masturbation, etc. These self-touching behaviors provide comfort as a substitute for another individual. Last are self-manipulators. Self-manipulators are behaviors to alleviate stress, such as twirling the hair, biting one’s lip, squeezing ones hands, etc. Research has shown that in times of stress, self-touching behaviors increase.

Messages Communicated with Touch

Touch communicates immediacy, intimacy, and indicates the strength of a relationship. Researchers have found that even slight touch increases credibility and attraction of the toucher, but especially when the toucher is “well-groomed, high-status, and expert communicators” (Andersen, 2008, pp. 199). Tie signs are touches that can indicate the type of relationship and strength of relationship with another individual. Zoologist Desmond Morris identified 14 of these signs. Tie signs, as written in Knapp and Hall (2014), are:

• The Handshake – to determine the strength of the relationship look at what the non-shaking hand is doing
• Body Guide – touch is used as a substitute for pointing. The guider is the person in charge. Several semesters ago newly initiated sorority women reported being guided by a sister through touch and light pushing on the small of the back.
• The Pat – a pat between adults communicates condescension by the person giving it in most cases. In sports, however, it is customary and congratulatory for men to pat each other.
• The Arm-link – the arm link indicates a close relationship. The person in charge is likely the one grasping the other person’s arm
• Shoulder Embrace – used in romantic relationships and between ‘buddies’
• Full Embrace – indicates intense emotion, romance, greetings, and farewells
• Hand-in-Hand – communicates support and equality between adults.
• Waist Embrace – this touch falls somewhere between hand-holding and the shoulder embrace on the intimacy continuum.
• The Kiss – variations in duration, location, and openness indicate the type and strength of the relationship.
• The Hand-to-Head – the head is a vulnerable place on our bodies and when we allow another person to touch us there it is a clear indication of trust and intimacy.
• The Head-to-Head – when two individuals put their heads together it communicates solidarity with each other as they shut the rest of the world out. This is very common with young lovers.
• The Caress – this touch is associated with romantic partners.
• The Body Support – this touch is most often associated with parents and children, as the parent carries, lifts, or lets their child sit in their lap.
• The Mock Attack – these touches are “aggressive looking behaviors…performed in a non-aggressive manner” such as playful arm punches, pushes, pinches, etc.

Impact of Touch

Touch can be perceived as positive or negative depending on one’s enjoyment of touching, who is doing the touching, where the touch is given, and if the touch is expected.

Touch Approachers and Touch Avoiders

Touch approachers are individuals who enjoy touching and being touched by others. They are always ready with a big hug or pat on the back. They tend to judge other individuals who touch more favorably than touch avoiders (Andersen, 2008). Likewise, they have been judged as having personalities that are more agreeable, more open to experience, and less neurotic than their touch avoider counterparts (Dorros et al., 2008, as cited in Knapp and Hall, 2014). Touch avoiders, on the other hand, put greater space between themselves and others, perceive touch negatively during interactions, and “are more likely to be Protestant or Jewish” (Andersen, 2008).

Positive and Negative Perceptions of Touch

Perceptions of touch are influenced by social-contextual factors. Researchers studied a group of college students over a three-day period. They had them list the touches that they received and then categorized them. Touch is experienced positively when it is used to support, assure (or reassure), show appreciation, affection, and sexual attraction. Research has shown that consumers will spend more money, rate a store higher, and spend more time shopping when they have been touched by an employee (Knapp & Hall, 2014). Positive touch is influential and affects compliance gaining. When individuals are touched they tend to tip more, more readily sign petitions, and gain favors. The more touch in a conversation, the higher the level of involvement. Suvilehto et al. (2015) studied appropriate touch in several countries and found the that there are areas that certain individuals can touch and certain areas of the body certain individuals should never touch (see Figure 1).

Touch can even be healing. Scientists have found that just one session of a massage will have beneficial effects on anxiety, blood pressure, and heart rate. Last, touch is symbolic. When we touch something or someone very important we see ourselves differently for a period of time. I know someone who saw Elvis Presley caught his scarf during a concert. I am certain she has no plans on selling it, but there are similar scarves listed for sale between $995 and $2,425. This illustrates the symbolic power of touch – Elvis’ touch. Last is the interpersonal impact of touch – who and what we are touching is important. Researchers had individuals who were in relationship for at least six months hold hands or squeeze a ball while they viewed a negative or neutral video. They found that holding hands may not reduce emotional pain, but it helps and individual adapt to it and process it (Sahi et al., 2021).

Touch isn’t always positive, though. Touch is negative when it is unwelcome and possibly unexpected. Most young people don’t experience negative touch (we’ll discuss that later in the chapter), but it is much more likely to happen in young children. Even though tickling is the ultimate form of play, it can also be the most distressing to individuals. Have you ever tried to tickle yourself? It doesn’t work. Research shows that unwelcome tickling can be traumatic (Marder, 2020) and we should pay close attention to what is being said when we tickle someone. Even though their face may seem like they are enjoying it, if they say stop then they aren’t enjoying it and we should stop immediately. There are other types of touch that are unwelcome and traumatic to those who receive it. Unwelcome sexual touch is also known as sexual assault and every 68 seconds, an American is victimized. That victim is a child every nine minutes (RAINN, 2023). Domestic violence is another form of unwelcome touch and includes, but is not limited to, sexual assault. The National Coalition Against Domestic Violence (2023) reports that “nearly 20 people per minute” are physically harmed by a partner here in the United States. Physiologically, our heart rate increases when we receive an unexpected touch.

 

Culture and Co-culture

Cultures vary in their acceptance and tolerance of touch and are considered either contact cultures or non-contact cultures. Rules associated with touch are learned and vary tremendously in appropriate, type, and amount of touch between different cultures.

Cultures

Asian cultures “are the most touch avoidant in the world, whereas Mediterranean cultures are the most touch oriented” (Andersen, 2008, pp. 82). Other non-contact cultures include the United States, UK, and North Americans. In Asia the head is considered a sacred part of the body and should not be touched. Sorokowska (2021) asked 14,000 adults from 45 countries whether they embraced, kissed, stroked, or kissed their partner, friends, and youngest child the preceding week. They found that children and partners were stroked, embraced, kissed, and hugged, whereas friends were seldom kissed or stroked. Additionally, they found that the amount of affectionate touch varied between countries. Italy, Estonia, Romania, Spain, and Mexico had approximately only 2% not touch their partner the previous week, the United States was almost 16%, Uganda was more than 20%, and China 43%. Other research indicates that more affectionate touch occurs in warmer, less conservative, and less religious countries. Likewise, more affectionate touch occurs among younger, female, and liberal people (Andersen, 2008).

High contact cultures regularly use touch, use less personal space, and engage in more eye contact. Contact cultures include Southern Europeans, Arabs, and South Americans. In Arab countries is not uncustomary for men to hold hands. However, Fattah (2005) explains that this mostly still occurs only in the countries where the sexes are segregated. There are even rules which hand is to be used for touching. In the Middle East, the left hand is reserved for hygiene and should not be used to touch others or transfer objects.

Age

It comes as no surprise that as individuals age, they experience less touch. We experience a high amount of touch when we are very young and completely dependent on another human being, the least amount when we are teenagers, and then touch begins to increase again once we are married. Touch rates and types change as we age and most touch that the elderly receive are functional or professional touch.

Infants between 3 – 9 months are touched 67% of the time (Muir, 2002). Touching infants frequently is incredibly important to their development and well-being. Infants that are touched more cry less, smile more, have more vocalizations (Andersen, 2008) and it increases a child’s ability to bond with significant others (Kondrasuk-Brander, 2020). Also, the more babies are hugged, the more their brain grows (Coila, 2018). Premature infants benefit greatly from massage therapy. Hospitals have been using massage therapy for premature babies for some time now. This hospital in India (see Figure 2) teaches mothers massage techniques. In addition to the benefits listed above, researchers additionally found that it stimulates weight gain as well as improved muscle coordination (Ketki et al., 2020). Harmon (2010) found that skin-to-skin contact helps newborns sleep better and cry less. For the mothers of newborns, skin-to-skin contact reduces stress, releases oxytocin, and they have been shown to have lower levels of depression. Not all babies have this experience. Evidence of lack of touch and interaction with babies and children in orphanages are widespread. Children who are touch deprived are sick more often, their mental, emotional, and physical growth is stunted, they are unable to learn, gain weight and are maladjusted (Coila, 2018). These children simply do not thrive.

Gender

Different expectations about touch are imposed on girls and boys – males are often discouraged from touching others and being touched. At six months old, girls are encouraged to touch and stay close to parents, more so than boys. Likewise, touch by boys from the age of toddlers to teens is seen as increasingly inappropriate (Knapp & Hall, 2014). Preschool boys touch male teachers more than female teacher, whereas girls touched both male and female teachers equally. Teachers touch children of their same sex more frequently. It is not surprising that women rate touch more positively than men. Men tend to touch more in dating relationships than women, however, women tend to touch more in marital relationships (Andersen, 2008).

Summary

Touch is one of the most important ways to communicate messages, however, it is the most underused of all nonverbal behavior. Touch approachers are comfortable giving and receiving touch, but touch avoiders prefer not to touch at all. Our touch with others indicates the type and strength of relationship that we have with them. Morris identified tie signs to explain this phenomenon. The various types of touch can be positive or negative depending on the context, the person administering the touch, whether the touch welcome or unexpected, and one’s culture.

 

 

References

 

Coila, B. (2018, Summer). The Influence of Touch on Child Development. Bridges. WestVirginia Department of Health. Retrieved fromhttps://www.wvdhhr.org/birth23/raunewsletters/RAU7_Summer2018_PPNewsletter.pdf

Fattah, H.M. (2005, May 1). The Basics; Why Arab Men Hold Hands. The New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2005/05/01/weekinreview/the-basics-why-arab-men-hold-hands.html#:~:text=%22Holding%20hands%20is%20the%20warmest,sign%20of%20distance%20or%20disdain.

Harmon, K. (2010, May 6). How Important is Physical Contact with Your Infant? Touch and emotional engagement boost early childhood development, but can children recover from neglectful environments? Scientific American. Retrieved from https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/infant-touch/

Ketki, N., H. C. L., R., & Shashi Kant, D. (2016). Effectiveness of touch therapy on weight gain among preterm infants admitted in NICU at G.G.S. Medical Hospital, Faridkot. Baba Farid University Nursing Journal, 11(2), 36-42.

Kondrasuk-Brander, T. (2020, July 27). Professional Insight: The Benefits of Infant Massage. Hand to Hold: NICU Babies Parent Support. Retrieved from https://handtohold.org/benefits-infant-massage/

Lai, M.M., D’Acunto, G., Guzzetta, A., Boyd, R.N., Rose, S.E., Fripp, J., Finnigan, S., Ngenda, N., Love, P., Whittingham, K., Pannek, K., Ware, R.S. & Colditz, P.B. (2016). PREMM: preterm early massage by the mother: protocol of a randomized controlled trial of massage therapy in very preterm infants. BMC Pediatrics, 16, 146. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12887-016-0678-7

Marder, J. (2020, July 13). The Caser Against Tickling. The New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2020/07/13/parenting/kids-tickling.html#:~:text=Lawrence%20Cohen%2C%20Ph.,also%20a%20clear%20boundary%20breaker.

National Coalition Against Domestic Violence. (2022, March 18). Statistics. Retrieved from https://ncadv.org/STATISTICS.

O’Dell, C. D., & Hoyert, M. S. (2002). Active and Passive Touch: A Research Methodology Project. Teaching of Psychology, 29(4), 292–294. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15328023TOP2904_07

RAINN (2023, March 14). Statistics. Retrieved from https://www.rainn.org/statistics.

Sahi, R. S., Dieffenbach, M. C., Gan, S., Lee, M., Hazlett, L. I., Burns, S. M., Lieberman, M. D., Shamay-Tsoory, S. G., & Eisenberger, N. I. (2021). The comfort in touch: Immediate and lasting effects of handholding on emotional pain. PLoS ONE, 16(2), 1–15. https://doi-org.ezproxy.una.edu/10.1371/journal.pone.0246753

Sorokowska, A. (2021, August 6). Expression of Affection Across Cultures. Society for Personality and Social Psychology. Retrieved from https://spsp.org/news-center/character-context-blog/expression-affection-through-touch-across-cultures

Suvilehto, J. T., Glerean, E., Dunbar, R. I. M., Hari, R., & Nummenmaa, L. (2015). Topography of social touching depends on emotional bonds between humans. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 112(45), 13811–13816. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1519231112

Williams, E. (2018, April 05). 4 Facts About Hugs: Why You Should Embrace the Embrace. Dignity Health. Retrieved from https://www.dignityhealth.org/articles/4-facts-about-hugs-why-you-should-embrace-the-embrace.