3 Chapter 3: Theories and Program Approaches

Chapter 3: Theories and Program Approaches

 About the Author

About the Peer Reviewer

Chapter 3: Theories and Program Approaches

Authored by Angela Blums and Reviewed by Jessica Kirchhofer

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This chapter aligns with SLO # 1:  explain current theories and ongoing research in early care and education, SLO #3:  compare early learning program models and SLO #8:  describe major historical figures, advocates, and events shaping today’s early childhood education.

Key Points from this chapter:

• Child development theories are frameworks for helping teachers understand how children develop.
• Early learning program approaches have different philosophies that guide their curriculum and practices with young children.
• High-quality early learning programs use theories to inform their work.

Terminology found throughout this chapter:

Theory:  A set of ideas that are supported by a substantial amount of evidence and are based on repeated testing of the same concepts

Object Permanence: The ability for a child to understand that if an object is hidden from view, it continues to exist

Constructivism: The idea that children create (or construct) their own knowledge through experiences with the world

Schemas: Categories of information about a concept or thing

Conditioning: The idea that children are motivated by external cues which drive behavior

Reinforcers: Actions taken by adults to encourage or discourage certain behaviors

Intrinsic Motivation: A desire to do things based on one’s own wishes and goals

Models: The individuals in a child’s environment after which behavior is emulated

More Knowledgeable Others: Individuals in a child’s environment who have more skills and knowledge about a particular area than the child

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): The difference between what a child can do alone and what a child can do with help from a more knowledgeable other

Scaffolding: The assistance given by the more knowledgeable other that changes in response to the child’s ability

Life Crisis: A psychological conflict in which two conflicting aspects of development must be navigated by an individual

Attachment Pattern: Description of the relationship between mother (or primary caregiver) and child based on the behavior of the child

Internal Working Model: A conceptual understanding of how the relationship between an individual and a loved one should be

Theories and Program Approaches

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The best early childhood programs are informed by sound theory.  This ensures that the aims of the program are effective and the practices have a positive impact on every child.  What is a theory in the context of early childhood education?  A theory is a set of ideas that are supported by a substantial amount of evidence and are based on repeated testing of the same concepts.  Theories have been repeatedly tested using scientific inquiry.  This differs from a philosophy, which is also a useful way to organize knowledge about children’s development but is not based on empirical evidence.  Theories provide an explanation on a specific phenomenon, and as such, developmental theories explain different aspects of how children develop.

In early childhood education, theories about child development are used to decide how to carry out program approaches.  This is one way that early childhood educators can ensure high quality programs for children and families. High-quality ECE programs turn to child development theory to create effective learning environments for children.  For example, child development theory indicates that children learn best through action, engaging in a concept using their five senses.  Adults on the other hand, have the ability to learn from reading a text or watching a video.  Because of child development theory, we know for sure that the very best way for young children to learn is with hands-on methods.  If a person designs a program with this in mind, then that program is rooted in child development theory.  That means that if a teacher wants children to learn about the parts of a pumpkin, then she will give the children pumpkins, cut them up, and let the children explore the parts rather than showing them a video about pumpkins.  The teacher does it this way because the program has committed to basing their practice on theory.

Theories

There are several theories about child development that are used to inform ECE programs.  This section will cover the seven most prominent theories that have stood the test of time.  Those are: cognitive developmental, behaviorism, social learning theory, sociocultural, psychosocial theory, attachment, and ecological systems theory.

Cognitive Developmental

Cognitive developmental theory focuses on how children think, learn, and acquire new knowledge.  It was developed by a Swiss scientist named Jean Piaget.  According to cognitive developmental theory, children move through childhood in a series of stages.  These stages determine what behaviors adults can expect from a child as well as what capabilities a child has at a given stage.  There are four stages through which children progress: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operations, and formal operations.  The features of these stages are outlined in Table 3.1.  Between the ages of birth and two years, a child is in the sensorimotor stage.  In this stage, children explore objects using their hands and mouth and coordinate sensory experiences through physical movement.  If an object is hidden from view, they believe it to have disappeared for good.  When a child begins to understand that the object still exists even if they can’t see where it went, this is referred to as object permanence, which is one of the main understandings constructed during this stage.  Between the ages of two to seven years, a child is in the preoperational stage.  During this stage, a child is able to engage in symbolic reasoning which leads to pretend play.  For example, a child might use a stick as a spoon during this stage.  The concrete operations stage takes place between the ages of seven to twelve years.  During this stage, children begin to use logical reasoning, but it is usually limited to real objects that can be seen or touched.  During this stage, children might be able to add and subtract using manipulatives.  The formal operations stage starts at age twelve and continues through adulthood.  During this stage, children can begin to engage in abstract and logical reasoning in multiple situations. This might take the form of solving complex puzzles and games.

Piaget’s stages are a useful way to consider how children develop in thinking, learning, and acquiring new knowledge.  One consideration for all stage theories is that there is variability in how children move through stages.  The stages are not rigid; for example, just as a child turns two years old, they may not immediately begin pretend play.  Some children might do it a bit sooner and some do it a bit later.  Children are living, breathing, beings after all!  Another consideration is that the transition between stages is not sudden.  Just because a two-year-old engages in pretend play does not mean that she is now finished exploring toys and objects with her mouth.  Children often have behaviors of two stages when they are transitioning from one to the other.

Table 3.1. Piaget Stage Definitions

Cognitive developmental theory also includes an explanation for how children acquire new knowledge.  This is known as constructivism.  Constructivism is the idea that children create (or construct) their own knowledge through experiences with the world.  Children must use their five senses to interact with objects in their environment in order to gain new information.  In this way, they build a conceptual understanding about the world around them.  Further, the stage that a child is in determines how a child constructs knowledge.  If an infant is in the sensorimotor stage, then they might gain new knowledge about an object by putting it in their mouth.  If they take an adult’s keys and start to play with them, they will learn that keys feel cold and hard when placed in the mouth.  The next time they see something made of metal, for example a spoon, they will expect that is cold when placed in the mouth, because they learned this from a direct experience with the keys.  Reading a book or watching a video about keys will never give the infant this same knowledge because children need tangible, concrete items to help them learn about the world.

Constructivism also dictates that new knowledge builds upon previous knowledge.  As children build concepts about their world, they start to organize that information into categories.  These categories are called schemas.  Schemas are categories of information about a concept or thing.  For example, two-year old Zhe might have a schema about dogs.  He might conceptualize dogs as furry, four-legged creatures who have tails.  Every time he sees a new kind dog, he will mentally place it into that category of dogs.  This process is referred to as assimilation, fitting in new information into what is already known.  When Zhe goes on a walk and sees a black lab, a corgi, and a German Shepard, he assimilates these different types of dogs into his schema for dogs.  But what happens when he sees a Great Dane?  It has four legs and a tail, but due to its size, resembles a horse more than a dog.  Zhe must then accommodate this information, therefore changing his previously held ideas about dogs, so that his schema for dogs now includes larger dogs as well.  Consider also the first time Zhe sees a cat.  It is furry, it has four legs and a tail, but it says “meow” instead of “woof”.  Zhe must once again accommodate, this time creating a new schema about cats which he now knows are in a different group than dogs.  This process continues throughout childhood as children learn and organize new information.

Behaviorism

Behaviorism is a theory based on the work of several researchers including John Watson, B.F. Skinner and Ivan Pavlov which focuses on children’s observable behaviors and actions.  This theory indicates that children’s behaviors can be shaped through external cues called reinforcers.  Reinforcers are actions taken by adults to encourage or discourage certain behaviors.  This process is called conditioning.  When a child has been conditioned, their behavior has been shaped in response to the cues from the teacher to guide the child to the behaviors desired by the adult.  An example of conditioning in a classroom might look like this: A teacher wants all children to sit down for circle time.  She may announce that circle time is about to begin, and as each child sits, she gives a sticker to each one.  The sticker acts as the reinforcement for desired behavior.  After this process has been repeated over a few weeks, the children will come to sit as soon as the teacher announces circle time.

In recent years, there has been some criticism of behaviorism in classroom settings.  Critics assert that reinforcements, like stickers, deter intrinsic motivation.  Intrinsic motivation is a desire to do things based on one’s own wishes and goals.  Many believe that children should engage in acceptable behavior simply because it is desirable and interesting.  In practice, this means that to get children to sit for circle time, they must want to do it.  How to make them want to do it?  Make it interesting and fun!  Sing engaging songs, smile, use shakers and instruments to find a way to draw the children in.

A further criticism of behaviorism is that it does not help children learn acceptable behavior in the long term.  That is, what happens when there is no sticker?  In the absence of reinforcement, the desired behavior can diminish.  What happens when children transition to a class where no reinforcers are given for sitting down?

Despite its shortcomings, behaviorism is still used in many classrooms and can be a successful method for guiding children’s behavior.  Reinforcers can be seen as rewards for children and can contribute to higher class morale.  Many teachers appreciate even the short-term effectiveness that behaviorism provides in guiding children toward acceptable behavior.

A final note on behaviorism: some teachers may be tempted to use snacks or treats as reinforcers.  This practice is strongly discouraged, as it can interfere with healthy eating habits and raise issues for children who are experiencing food insecurity.  Indeed, nothing edible should be used to direct children’s behavior.

Social Learning Theory

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Social learning theory is based on the research of Albert Bandura about how children learn particular behaviors based on watching the actions of those around them.  The individuals in a child’s environment are referred to as models.  According to social learning theory, children observe the behaviors of others around them and use that as a model for their own behavior.  For example, if a teacher commonly uses words like please and thank you with children, the children will begin to use those words as well.  Children usually model the important adults in their life but may also model behavior from media sources.  As such, social learning theory calls into question violent content seen in media because it may have an effect on child behavior.  Social learning theory expands upon behaviorism in that children’s behaviors are not just a matter of behavior and reinforcement but are also interwoven with the social context as well.  In this way, children learn about consequences of actions in a more organic way rather than through prescribed reinforcers, leading to more long-term behaviors.  Consider an example of a toddler observing an adult opening a jar to find a hidden toy.  The adult models the hand coordination involved in the action and expresses delight at the contents.  This encourages similar attempts by the child who begins to practice the skill of opening a jar.

Sociocultural Development

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Sociocultural development theory addresses how children learn new skills through social interactions.  It is related to cognitive developmental theory in that both are focused on how children think and learn.  It was developed by the psychologist Lev Vygotsky.  Instead of focusing on how children interact with objects and concepts in the environment, social cognitive theory focuses on how children interact with other individuals in their environment.  These individuals are referred to as the more knowledgeable other, as they have more skills and knowledge about a particular area than the child.  The more knowledgeable other can be an older peer or an adult.  According to social learning theory, when children are learning a new skill, they best accomplish it by operating on the upper edge of their abilities.  This is referred to as the zone of proximal development, or ZPD.  ZPD is the difference between what a child can do alone and what a child can do with help from a more knowledgeable other.  For example, if 6-year-old Shruti cannot ride a bike alone but can ride it with help from her mother, then this activity is in her ZPD.  How does her mother help her learn to ride?  She might hold onto the back of the bike seat, steadying Shruti as she pedals.  She may hold onto the handlebars, helping her daughter navigate turns.  She may give verbal cues, alerting Shruti when she needs to apply the brakes.  Whatever help Shruti’s mother gives is dependent on her daughter’s skill.  This is referred to as scaffolding.  Scaffolding is the assistance given by the more knowledgeable other that changes in response to the child’s ability.  The best way to support a child’s learning is to give them just the specific help that they need in order to allow them to complete the skill.  If Shruti has no trouble balancing and steering, then holding onto the seat and handlebars will do her no good in learning.  Verbal cues on when to apply the brakes are what she needs.  On the other hand, if it is her first time on the bike, verbal cues on how to brake will not be very useful as she wobbles around and falls.  To engage in optimal learning, a child must be guided within their zone of proximal development.  If a task is too easy, then then it may become boring.  If it is too difficult, the child may become frustrated and give up.  Through scaffolding, a more knowledgeable other can help support a child to learn things that they could not do alone.  Then the more knowledge other will slowly reduce the support until the child can complete the task alone.

Psychosocial

Another theory that focuses on the development of the child as they move through stages is psychosocial theory.  Developed by Erik Erikson, Psychosocial theory posits that human development is characterized by a series of stages.  Each stage represents a transition time for learning and development and is marked by a specific aspect of development.  Beginning at birth and ending in late adulthood, this theory encompasses the lifespan.  As an individual enters into each stage, they are faced with a psychological conflict, known as a life crisis.  A life crisis is when two conflicting aspects of development must be navigated by an individual.  The stages are listed in table 3.2.  To illustrate how a child might move through a life crisis, consider the following example of the stage “initiative vs guilt”.  Three-year-old Leandro has used his crayons to color a lovely picture for his daddy and hangs it on the wall using tape.  Daddy praises Leandro at his good idea to hang artwork on the wall using tape.  Next time, Leandro decides to color directly on the wall, which leads to a scolding from daddy instead.  Leandro has shown initiative, taking independent action for hanging a picture on the wall all by himself.  He also experiences guilt for his initiative gone wrong when he colors on the wall.  As he moves through this process, he learns to take initiative in the appropriate way and gains pride from his accomplishments.

Table 3.2

Attachment Theory

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Attachment theory was developed on the premise that infants need physical and emotional support from a primary caregiver early in life in order to become emotionally well-adjusted in early childhood and beyond.  Developed by Mary Ainsworth and John Bowlby, this theory is grounded in the mother-child bond but can be applied to the father or other primary caregiver.  Attachment theory proposes four different types of bonds or attachment patterns, that a child can have with the mother (or primary caregiver).  An attachment pattern is a description of the relationship between mother and child based on the behavior of the child.  Attachment patterns were measured using a lab test called the “Strange Situation”.  In the Strange Situation, the mother and baby played in a playroom along with a friendly stranger.  The mother leaves for a brief time, leaving the child to play with the stranger.  When the mother returns, the baby’s behavior upon this “reunion” is observed and coded as a type of attachment pattern.  There are four main types of attachment patterns which are outlined in table 3.3.

Table 3.3

There has been some recognition in recent years as to the lack of cross-cultural validity of the strange situation as a measure of attachment, meaning attachment might not look the same for everyone.  The strange situation was developed using a mostly western, middle-class sample.  Because adult interactions with infants can vary by culture, the reactions of infants during the strange situation might not always look the same.  While there are some other ways to measure attachment, more research is needed to uncover ways to measure attachment across a variety of cultures.

Secure attachment leads to positive outcomes for children.  Securely attached children are more likely to have positive social relationships and are more successful in school.  On the other hand, insecurely attached children have trouble forming and maintaining social relationships and tend to have behavior and academic problems in school.

What do mothers and other primary caregivers do to form a secure attachment?  It mostly relies on sensitivity.  Sensitivity in this sense refers to a responsiveness to an infant’s emotions.  If baby cries, the mother soothes her.  If baby laughs, mother laughs along.  In this way, the infant builds a reliable bond with the mother that sets them up for stable emotional connection.  Additionally, it helps a child develop an internal working model for how relationships should function in general.  An internal working model is a conceptual understanding of how the relationship between an individual and a loved one should be.  With a securely attached child, their internal working model might be something like “the adults in my life are people who love me and take care of me.  My needs are met by them”.  This is later transferred to form trusting relationships with others like grandparents, teachers, and later, romantic partners.

Ecological Systems Theory

Ecological systems theory, developed by Urie Bronfenbrenner, focuses on the child in the context of their environment.  The premise of this theory is that the child develops in response to the multiple systems that influence them.  For example, a child is influenced by their immediate household family, extended family, neighbors, schools, and society at large.  These systems are organized into categories based on their immediate contact with the child and how directly or indirectly they influence the child.  The systems also influence one another.  For example, the language a family speaks at home is influenced by the society in which the family live.  These systems each have names.  The system that refers to the child’s immediate environment is the Microsystem.  The child’s immediate family, school or childcare, and friends are in the microsystem.  The Mesosystem refers to the connections between the entities in the microsystem.  The interactions of parents and the teachers at school are an example of the mesosystem.  The next layer is the Exosystem, or the social influences that are more removed from the child.  Parent’s workplace, healthcare services, and local politics are examples of the exosystem.  The Macrosystem represents attitudes of the larger culture.  Examples of entities within the macrosystem are society’s acceptance of women working outside the home or societal racism.  The last system is the Chronosystem, or the way larger societal events change over time.  Global warming, and the political policies in place to hinder it, is an example of the chronosystem.  Let us take a look at an example of 3-year-old Maria.  She lives with her parents and older sister and they speak Spanish at home.  Her parents emigrated from Mexico to the United States seven years ago.  Her microsystem includes her mother, father, sister, her best friend Lucia, and the childcare they attend at the local community center.  Her mesosystem is when her parents volunteer at the community center where her childcare center is and when she has a playdate at Lucia’s house.  Her exosystem includes the marketing firm where her parents work, the healthcare provided by the parents’ employers, and the state funding that runs her community-based childcare center.  Her macrosystem contains the attitudes of society about her family’s native language and her parent’s immigration status.  Her chronosystem reflects the changing status of women of color – as Maria has more and more role models in

the media who represent her culture.  As this example illustrates, the ecological systems model represents the dynamic environments that shape how a child develops.  It is not just the parents, extended family, peers, or teachers, but rather all the parts of society working together.

Program Approaches

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Early childhood programs use child development theories to inform their practice.  High-quality programs know that grounding program practices in sound theory leads to better outcomes for children.  When programs use real, hands-on experiences to teach children about their world, it is due to the influence of the cognitive developmental model.  Likewise, when programs include family involvement or community connections, we can thank the influence of the ecological systems theory.  The next section will take a look at some programmatic approaches which are combinations of theory and practice which create specific curriculum choices.

High Scope

High scope is a program model that is child-centered and provides children with hands-on experiences.  Its roots are unique – it originated from a research-based preschool program in Michigan in the 1960s called the Perry Preschool Project.  The goal of the Perry Preschool Project was to enroll low-income children in high quality preschool experiences to see if it would improve their life outcomes.  The researcher David Weikart followed the children’s progress for decades to measure the results.  Weikart chose to include low-income children because, in comparison to middle-income children, children in low-income households are at greater risk for lowered academic achievement, have lower rates of high school graduation, higher rates of crime, and a higher likelihood of poverty later in life.  The goal of the Perry Preschool project was to counter the effects of poverty early in life.  This was one of the first and most published pieces of scientific research to investigate how economic investments in early childhood education could have long-term benefits to the child, the family, and to society.  The idea was that if you give a child a strong start early on, it will pay off when they become adolescents and adults.  What the researchers hoped for came true.  Children who participated in the Perry Preschool Project had greater academic achievement, greater high school graduation rates, lower rates of crime, and higher adult earnings than their low-income peers who were not in the preschool project.  This study showed that access to high-quality preschool programs in the first few years of life can have long-term benefits for the child.  This research highlighted the importance of the early years of a child’s life in influencing the course of their future.

So, what was the magic formula of the Perry Preschool Project?  There were several components, but two main pieces stand out.  The classroom system of plan-do-review and family involvement.  Plan-Do-Review is a system that helps children organize their play activities.  Children gather in a circle and the teacher asks them what activity center they plan to play in during the morning free play time.  The choices range from blocks and art to dramatic play or puzzles.  Children make their choice to the group, such as “I plan to play with Jakeem in the blocks area.  We are going to build a really big bridge!”.  After the children make their plans, they go and do the activity of their choice.  It is okay if kids switch activities or change their plans during this time.  After free play, the children return to the circle and report back on how their plans went.  Did Jakeem and his friend build a successful bridge?  What went well?  Did anything unexpected happen?  The teacher will ask these types of probing questions to get the children to think about their activities.  This method supports cognitive development because it involves planning.  Children are able to explore their world and engage in hands-on activities.  The plan-do-review helps to support their memory development and helps them to develop concentration, attention, and focus, all skills which are related to the academics they will engage in when they enter elementary school.

The second main component of the Perry Preschool Project was family involvement.  Families were visited in their homes by teachers to create connections between what was happening in the classroom and at home.  When a child learns a concept in class, it should not stay in class.  Having families participate in learning at home can help create layers of learning for the child.  It also provides an opportunity for parent support and education.  This approach aligns with the ecological model in that the family and community are integrated into a child’s early childhood education setting, supporting development using the multiple contexts involved in a child’s life.

The High Scope model follows the findings from the Perry Preschool Project.  It has taken those evidence-based strategies and created a program model to serve children in early learning settings.  It is the embodiment of the philosophy that family income need not be the sole determining factor in children’s academic and life outcomes.

A similar program to the Perry Preschool Project is Head Start.  Head Start is a preschool program which also has its roots in researching ways to improve the lives of children in poverty.  Head Start research has found similar results to the Perry Preschool, and with comparable methods.  Head Start has become a long-term, nationwide program that still exists today.  Indeed, many Head Start programs even follow the High Scope method.  These programs demonstrate the need and effectiveness of high-quality preschool programs.

Developmental Interaction

The Developmental Interaction approach was founded by Lucy Sprague Mitchell, an education reformer who developed innovate ideas for educating children and helped to professionalize teaching for women.  Mitchell also founded the Bank Street College of Education in New York.  The developmental interaction approach, sometimes called the Bank Street approach, focuses on developing the child in all areas – physical, intellectual, social, and emotional.  Teachers in the Developmental Interaction approach see learning as a holistic process and consider developmental domains (physical, intellectual, social, and emotional) as inherently interconnected.  It emphasizes meeting children where they are and providing opportunities for making choices.  It is play-based, so children have lots of free time to explore on their own terms.  It also emphasizes the child’s role in society – another nod to the ecological model of child development.

Montessori

The Montessori approach to education was developed by Maria Montessori, an Italian physician and educator who was interested in reforming the way children learn in group settings.  The Montessori method has distinct key features that make it stand out from other approaches.  One such feature is mixed-age groups in a single class.  Children in Montessori classrooms can range from 2.5 to 5 years old.  This means that there is a great deal of peer learning happening.  Older children can model behavior for younger children, which can help facilitate learning better than direct instruction from a teacher.

Another feature of Montessori classroom is the concept of constructivism.  Montessori classrooms rely on a carefully structured classroom with materials that children can use to discover new concepts on their own using real life materials.  Items are often made from natural materials to give the child a realistic concept of the weight of an object based on its size.  In order to deeply engage with materials, children are given a large block of free play time – usually about 2.5 to 3 hours.  During this time, teachers will help children on an individual or small group level with materials.  The materials have an emphasis on child development.  Some may involve fine motor skills, like threading beads on a string, and some may promote problem solving, a part of cognitive development, such ordering pegs into holes by size and shape.  Many activities are related to practical life: washing dishes, placing flowers in a vase, and cleaning up after oneself.  Materials for practical life are always child-sized so that the child can feel that she can master the activity without unnecessary impediments.  There is a strong emphasis on completion.  Children will not be interrupted by a teacher when they are in the middle of a task, as this is thought to disrupt learning.  Independence is also emphasized.  Children are encouraged to learn how to use buttons and zippers in order to dress themselves at an early age.  Teachers without a Montessori background are often surprised to see the abilities of a two-and-a-half-year-old getting a jacket on and zipping it alone.

Mealtimes in Montessori centers can often differ from those of traditional classrooms.  When a meal is served, children will be invited to the table and asked to join when they are ready.  There is no large-scale, formal transition from playtime to lunchtime.  If a child is still working on an activity, then he may complete it in as much time as he wishes.  Typically, children gather around the table more or less at the same time, but it happens organically.  Children are drawn to the smell of food and a chance to visit with playmates at the table.  Children serve themselves and pour their own milk using child-sized utensils and milk pitchers.  At the end of the meal, children clear their own dishes and place them on a cart after removing unfinished food.

With such a free environment, how do teachers encourage classroom harmony in a Montessori classroom?  Teachers use guidance strategies that are similar to other approaches, but children often learn from observing older peers.  If a 3-year-old is approaching the art easel for the first time, she may watch a 5-year-old first.  She may observe her peer carefully dipping the brush into the cup, keeping paint on the paper, and wiping up any spills with a cloth.  Sometimes, this way of learning how to use and respect classroom materials can resonate more with a young child than when a teacher outlines strict rules for how to properly use paint.

Waldorf

Waldorf schools originated in Germany and were developed by Rudolf Steiner in the 1920s.  Waldorf programs have a strong emphasis on everyday practical activities and centers are designed to resemble a home in order to facilitate this.  Cooking, cleaning, sewing, and building are all activities that children engage in in a Waldorf program.  There is a strong emphasis on oral storytelling, creative arts, and music.  Historically, Waldorf programs included mystical and religious elements, but most modern programs typically do not.  Children are encouraged to engage in free play using toys and activities made of natural materials.  Like in Montessori programs, the belief is that children are more connected to toys and tools that are made of wood rather than plastic, as it is more aesthetically pleasing and facilitates a connection to nature.  In that spirit, Waldorf classrooms include organic materials such as acorns, shells and wool that are used for counting games, art, and storytelling.  Academic subjects are integrated with one another – math is taught through storytelling, combining mathematical problem solving with language development.  This helps promote cognitive development in a holistic way.  Teachers facilitate early math activities using small wool dolls and other natural, tangible materials.  However, formal learning of letters and numbers are not pushed upon young children in Waldorf schools.  It is the belief that children will come around to letter and number identification when they are ready, and that is usually not until the age of 6 or 7 years, which is when it is formally introduced in Waldorf schools.  Interestingly, this coincides with most modern European educational systems as well.  Preschools in the United States on the other hand, typically begin letter and number identification well before age 5 (although this is beginning to change).  This variation is a valuable lesson in cultural differences in developmentally appropriate practice.

Another key feature of Waldorf program is the daily rhythm.  While many preschools follow a daily schedule with specific hour or minute intervals, Waldorf programs follow a rhythm instead.  What matters here is the order of the day, not how long each activity takes.  So daily activities always follow the same sequence but may not be at the same time every day.  In the morning, for example, the teacher may invite the children to help bake bread or make soup for the lunch.  Children gather around kneading dough or chopping vegetables (children are encouraged to learn knife safety at an early age), and as they finish, they may disperse into other activities like sewing, building with blocks, or dancing with scarves.  Another teacher might gather a group of students to invite them to hear a story that she is telling using puppets and props to act out the plot.  Children may naturally come and go from the story based on what they are interested in playing with at that time.  When the lunch is ready, the teacher will invite children to the table with a song and, often times, by lighting a candle (children are also taught safety around the candle).  There is no set time, but meals are typically served at about the same time each day.  Children rely on the order of events to help them predict their environment.  A difference of 15 or 20 minutes makes no difference to them, however.  This focus on rhythm is also reflected in the practice of honoring the changing of seasons.  Waldorf programs also include rituals that celebrate the rhythms of nature.  This gives the children a connection to the larger system of which they are a part.

Reggio Emilia

The Reggio Emilia approach takes its name from the Italian city where it originated.  A constructivist approach, the Reggio method provides encouragement that children should explore their world using hands-on methods that are child-directed.  The approach was developed by Loris Malaguzzi following WWII.  It was his belief that children should be able to freely express themselves.  In that vein, Reggio programs encourage arts and music.
One core belief in the Reggio approach is the Hundred Languages of Children, or the ability of children to express their thoughts and feelings through arts such

Image 3.7. Photo credit: evgenit on Pixabay is licensed under CC by 1.0

as painting, sculpting, and drawing.  Indeed, Reggio programs are known for their emphasis on beautiful artwork.  Children’s art is displayed on the wall at the child’s eye level, often with a description of the work written by the teacher in the child’s own words.  This honors the child’s creative spirit and helps promote healthy emotional development.  Another feature of the original Reggio school in Italy is the connection to community.  The children there learn directly from members of the community, and the community members feel responsible for taking part in children’s education.  American programs emulate this goal with strong parental involvement.  US programs are referred to as “Reggio inspired” because the true Reggio schools in Italy have the connection to community that is unique to that location.  The Reggio approach believes that children learn from adults, peers, and the environment.  The environment is thought to be the “third teacher” and is set up so that children can explore independently as their interests guide them.  Spaces are set up with natural light, living plants, and materials that encourage creativity.

Forest Schools

Forest schools originated in Sweden and other European countries and their popularity has spread to the United States in recent years.  The concept of forest schools is that children spend their whole day outdoors, in all weather.  All activities take place outside – stories, art, construction, and even meals.  Children are dressed in appropriate clothing for all weather so that they are comfortable and safe while outside.  Many of the same activities that take place in indoor preschools also happen in forest preschools.  Children create art, often using natural materials, but also use paint, clay, and crayons.  Science activities are well-suited to a forest environment, as children can collect leaves and rocks to sort and categorize, or examine bugs using a microscope.  An outdoor environment lends itself well to construction projects, which may include building a tower with blocks or building a giant fort out of sticks, branches, and rope.  Forest schools often have a covered shelter or area where materials are kept in bins and teachers can take out the materials at the start of each day so that children have access to all the things they need for free play.  Teachers do circle time, read books, and sing songs, the same as in a typical preschool.  Mealtimes take place at outdoor tables and children wash hands using an outdoor hand washing station.  Usually children do not sleep outdoors, so forest schools are typically either half-day programs or include only children who are old enough to not need naptime.  Children in forest schools have a strong connection to nature and it is believed to provide many health and developmental benefits.

On a related note, in July 2021 Washington State became the first state to permanently license outdoor, nature-based childcare for preschool and school-age children under a new Senate Bill 5151.  This comes after a four-year outdoor preschool pilot program and gave DCYF the ability to set the precedent as the first state in the nation to develop licensing requirements for outdoor education.

Final Thoughts

Theories give us insight about how children develop.  There are seven major theories on child development, and each one is useful in understanding children’s needs at a given age.  It is important that teachers have a deep knowledge of children in order to create learning experiences that support development.  High-quality early childhood programs must be informed by theory.  There are a variety of approaches and philosophies in early childhood program models, and each has its own unique benefits.  One thing that all program models have in common is the connection to theory that supports children’s optimal development.

Chapter Attribution

“Chapter 3 Theories and Program Approaches” by Angela Blums is CC By 4.0

References

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Psychosocial Development. (2016). In J. L. Longe (Ed.), The Gale Encyclopedia of Psychology (3rd ed., Vol. 2, pp. 950-951). Gale. https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CX3631000627/GVRL?u=puya65247&sid=GVRL&xid=0c8890e7

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Schweinhart, L. J., Barnes, H. V., Weikart, D. P., Barnett, W., & Epstein, A. S. (1993). Significant benefits: The High/Scope Perry Preschool Study through age 27. (Monograph of the High/Scope Educational Research Foundation No. 10). Ypsilanti, MI: High/Scope Press.

Schweinhart, L. J. (2003). Benefits, Costs, and Explanation of the High/Scope Perry Preschool Program. SRCD paper.

Wadsworth, B. J. (1996). Piaget’s theory of cognitive and affective development: Foundations of constructivism (5th ed.). Longman Publishing.

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Websites you may want to explore further:

Summary of child development theorists: https://sielearning.tafensw.edu.au/MCS/CHCFC301A/12048/chcfc301a/lo/12020/index.htm

Summary of program approaches: https://www.niche.com/blog/7-popular-types-of-preschool-which-one-fits-your-child/

DCYF Outdoor Preschool Licensing Announcement:

https://dcyf.wa.gov/news/washington-becomes-first-nation-license-outdoor-nature-based-child-care